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There is clearly a commitment in jurisdictions across North America to
the community supervision of offenders (Petersilia 2001). Articles have
been written on this topic, making "personal responsibility"
(Horn, 2000), cost investment (Travis and Petersilia 2001), and selectively
resourced (Austin, 2001) arguments for managing the risk of offenders
who are under supervision in the community. For those offenders granted
a period of community supervision following incarceration, the reintegration
issues they face are central to understanding effective risk management
(Helfgott 1997). Risk management in the community is measured in part
by ability to follow expectations set out by the community parole officer
and the rules set out by the National Parole Board, which may have granted
an early release. Violations of these expectations, rules, and the law
do occur frequently, particularly in the first two to three months after
release. These violations can result in a period of re-incarceration,
at times, as long as the original sentence for those who were granted
early release.
There is considerable evidence in the literature to contradict the argument
that "nothing works" in offender rehabilitation (McGuire 2002).
While punitive measures have received little support, psychosocial treatment
effects, in general, are positive (Redondo, Sanchez-Meca, Garrido 2002).
Interventions that do not target needs associated with criminal behavior
- non-criminogenic needs - such as vague personal or emotional problems,
self-esteem, therapy groups that increase cohesiveness among offenders,
and showing respect for anti-social thinking do not have significant positive
impact on offender recidivism (McGuire, 2002). However, targeting needs
associated with re-offense - "criminogenic needs" (Andrews and
Bonta 2003; Gendreau, Little and Goggin, 1996) - is promising. Indeed,
Gendreau, Little and Goggin (1996) in their meta-analysis of predictors
of adult recidivism, reported that dynamic factors were strong indicators
of likelihood to re-offend. Douglas (2000) indicated that little insight,
antisocial attitudes, acute mental illness, impulsivity, low responsiveness
to institutional treatment, as well as unrealistic reintegration plans,
exposure to destabilizers, lack of personal support, low compliance with
supervision, and high stress were associated with heightened risk for
recidivism on community release. Static factors such as criminal history,
history of antisocial behavior, early family life, and social adjustment
were also powerful predictors of recidivism (Gendreau, Little and Goggin
(1996).
Lipsey's (1992) meta-analysis of treatment effects among young offenders
reported a broad range, as well as an overall positive and modest impact.
Results from deterrence treatments indicated negative results. Lipsey
and Wilson (1998) identified treatment types that carried the greatest
impact: interpersonal skills and teaching in the family home. Residential
services in the community and behavioral programs also produced the best
effects, whereas group counseling, drug abstinence, and milieu therapy
produced little effect. Intensive supervision and community-based programs
were found to make worthwhile reductions in delinquent behavior (Lipsey
1999).
Among adult parolees, deterrence interventions, such as intensive supervision,
appeared to produce positive effects on recidivism when they were paired
with some form of treatment (Gendreau 1999). McGuire (2002) described
a series of key principles of effective interventions. They were developed
from several meta-analytic reviews of "what works" for juvenile
and adult offenders in institutional and community settings. There are
gaps in the literature on the differential impact of generic or specialized
programming for offender subtypes, as well as institutional versus community
delivery. Additionally, differential impacts of intervention by age, gender,
ethnicity, or other cultural differences are not yet well understood (McGuire
2002).
Characteristics of interventions most likely to succeed had a strong theoretical
foundation, were developed to address a particular level of static risk
and criminogenic needs, utilized active approaches to learning, standardized
delivery and cognitive-behavioral models, and were offered by well-trained
staff (McGuire 2001).
Although family relations has been the subject of empirical inquiry (Gordon
2002), little attention has been paid to other contextual factors associated
with criminal recidivism, such as community social support - individuals,
family members outside of the immediate family, or community institutional
support - education, social services, and health services. While there
is evidence that corrections-based education, vocation, and work programs
have an impact on recidivism (Wilson, Gallagher, and MacKenzie 2000),
there has been little attention paid to the economic climate and work
conditions in which ex-offenders may find local employment. It is not
uncommon for parole officers to hear about the challenges offenders find
to securing decent jobs with a criminal record and modest work experience.
The present study capitalizes on the expertise of front line service providers
in an attempt to determine if their perceptions of the needs of newly
released federal offenders are consistent with factors known to affect
success on parole. Their purpose is to promote successful reintegration
for offenders leaving the institutional system to the community. Central
to effective community parole work is the recognition of static risk factors
and management of dynamic risk factors known to associate with recidivism
on a case-by-case basis. Indeed, effective correctional intervention requires
the use of styles and modes of treatment that are matched with the client's
need and learning style (Andrews, Zinger, Hoge, Bonta, Gendreau, and Cullen
1990).
Not surprisingly, the first 3 months after release are a challenging time
for offenders and their parole officers. Violations of parole conditions
occur frequently during this period, and no study has examined their perceptions
of needs for newly released offenders. There is a considerable amount
of literature on the accuracy of professional judgment. While practitioner
judgments about human health and behavior in many cases rival the precision
of statistical, actuarial, or algorithmic methods, mechanical approaches
to judgment are more accurate, on average (Grove, Zald, Lebow, Snitz,
and Nelson 2000). Parole officers have knowledge about the issues that
face offenders who have recently begun to live outside of a correctional
institution and make daily case management decisions concerning their
safe reintegration into the community. However, it is not known if parole
officers use similar factors in arriving at a judgment about offender
need as those that have been reported in the literature.
Parole officers supervising male and female, Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal
offenders from a broad geographic area were asked to respond to the question
"What do parolees need to succeed in the first 90 days of release?"
Their responses to this question were statistically analyzed into concepts
using multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis. The results are compared
to the existing psychological, criminological, and human services literatures
on recidivism, risk management, reintegration needs, and rehabilitation
of offenders on parole or probation.
CONCEPT MAPPING
Initially developed for planning and management applications, concept
maps have been used for evaluation, survey design, curriculum development,
or theory building (Trochim 1989a). In particular, concept maps are useful
to describe constructs for the purposes of research, where statements
within the clusters provide direction for the operationalization of a
concept.
Concept mapping has been applied within the fields of psychology and human
services. Clients' perceptions of helpful experiences in counseling (Paulson,
Truscott and Stuart 1999), the experience of depression (Daughtry and
Kunkel 1993), attitudes of chronic low back pain sufferers (Knish and
Calder 1999), and experiences of abused women with the justice system
(Ludwig 1996) have been described through the concept mapping method.
According to Trochim (1989b), there are six major components to the concept
mapping process. The first step was the generation of responses to a particular
question asked of a specified group of respondents. Second, these responses
were edited for clarity and to eliminate redundancies. Third, the statements
were sorted into piles of like statements. The piles were considered to
represent general themes. Fourth, two types of statistical analysis were
applied to the sorting of the statements to describe the relationship
between statements and their groupings. A decision was made regarding
the optimal number of concepts. Fifth, the major concepts were identified
according to the contents of the cluster. Sixth, the map was used for
its intended purpose: a graphic representation of the conceptualization
process.
METHOD
To prepare for the concept mapping process two steps were taken: participants
were selected and the focus for conceptualization was determined (Trochim
1989b). The following sections outline the participants and research instruments
employed in the study.
Participants
Participants were obtained through the staff and contract community parole
officer list in a large western Canadian district. Parole officers provide
supervision for inmates released to the community to serve the remainder
of their sentences. Inmates are typically released from lower security
institutions after cascading down from higher security institutions. Canadian
federal inmates serve sentences of two years or more for violent and non-violent
offenses.
The area from which participants were drawn includes approximately half
of the geographic area of one province and a territory. Participants were
selected at random from the staff list, and 111 were contacted by telephone.
Messages were left for parole officers who were unavailable at the time
they were called; each was invited to call the researcher back at a time
that was more convenient.
Data collection continued until no unique responses were being received;
74 participants were interviewed, 42 were female, and 32 male. Both male
and female parole officers of male and female offenders participated.
Participants resided in varying regions of the province and territory
including urban, rural, wilderness, and reserve areas. Aboriginal and
non-Aboriginal parole officers of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal offenders
participated. The age of participants varied from 25 to 61, the number
of years employed in corrections from less than one year (3 months) to
31 years, and the number of years providing community parole supervision
from less than one year (4 months) to 25 years.
Participants verbally consented to telephone interviews that included
the open-ended question: "What do parolees need to succeed in the
first 90 days after release?"
Representation of Statements
The conceptual domain was analyzed by two distinct statistical procedures
and was followed by a decision about the optimal number of concepts for
the final solution. Multidimensional scaling placed the statements spatially
on a map, and cluster analysis placed the points into clusters representing
higher order aggregates of the statements. The first analysis reveals
underlying structure among individual items, and the second, among groups
of the individual items. The study utilized the Concept System (Trochim
1987) to perform the statistical analysis and construction of the concept
maps.
According to MacCallum (1988) the purpose of multidimensional scaling
is to "represent and provide a basis for understanding the structure
inherent in certain types of data involving judgments about stimuli"
(p. 421). Nonmetric multidimensional scaling is a multivariate analysis
that takes a table of similarities and represents it as distances between
each of the original items.
Each statement was placed on a map called a point map (Trochim 1989b).
Statements that were closer together on the map were more likely to be
sorted into the same piles more frequently. Statements that were far apart
were more likely to be sorted into different piles more frequently. The
bridging index is a value between zero and one that indicated the relationships
between a statement and others on the map. In general, the closer the
value was to one for a particular statement, the more often that statement
was sorted with statements in other regions of the map. As the value approached
zero, the more likely the statement was sorted with others situated in
its area.A second analysis was performed on the map data to represent
the conceptual domain (Trochim 1989b). Hierarchical cluster analysis (Anderberg
1973; Everitt 1980) of the multidimensional scaling X-Y coordinate values
was used to group the statements on the map into clusters that represent
similar concepts. Initially, each statement is considered to be its own
cluster. At each stage of the analysis the algorithm combined two clusters
until all statements end up in one cluster. The decision regarding the
most appropriate number of concepts was made by the researcher based on
the conceptual fit of the statements within the various cluster solutions
generated and the items contributing most to the uniqueness of each cluster
using the average and individual bridging indices. Cluster solutions from
15 to 3 were examined before concluding that the seven cluster solution
fit the data best.
Generation of Statements
Participants generated responses to the question or focus of discussion.
These statements represented the domain of interest (Trochim 1989b). Statements
were edited for clarity, essential meaning, and redundancy (Trochim 1989b)
in the study using an inter-rater agreement process.
Only unique responses from participants were recorded by gender.1
The total number of statements provided was 146. Males provided 72 unique
statementsand females, 70. There was 87% agreement on the unique statements
provided by males and females. The resulting list of statements included
6 statements made by males and not females, and 4 statements made by females
and not males. Statements made by males included: "positive role
model", "faith community", "work-appropriate clothing
and supplies", "structure", and "establishing daily
routine". Statements provided by females included: "understanding
and flexible parole officer", "child care", "programs
for female offenders", and "learning socially acceptable communication".
Because there were few differences between responses by males and females,
for the purposes of analysis, their statements were combined. Editing
for clarity (e.g. "payment for taking corrections treatment",
changed to "program participation allowance") essential meaning
(e.g. help understanding other languages for parolees whose first language
is not English", reduced to "interpretive services"), as
well as removal of redundant responses (where two statements essentially
report the same meaning) by the author and a forensic psychologist reduced
the number of statements to 76.
Structuring of Statements
There was interest by participants in the study results, and several,
when asked at the time they were interviewed, were interested in doing
a sort. Their participation in the sorting task also had the benefit of
representing the perspectives of parole officers in the analysis. Those
who participated in the interviews were contacted by telephone and asked
to participate in the sorting task. Consenting participants were instructed
to follow a specific procedure for the statements: read through the statements;
sort the statements into piles in a way that makes sense to you (place
similar statements together into the same pile).A total of 20 individuals
consented to participate in the sort process, and 18 sorts were returned.
Interpretation and Utilization of Maps
Following the statistical analysis, the clusters were visually inspected
and labeled by the author and a forensic psychologist to represent the
constituent statements of which they were comprised. The resulting map
provided a visual summary of the conceptualization process.
RESULTS
Statements in Table 1 were collected from participants, edited, and then
returned to them for sorting. The sort data were analyzed using the Concept
System (Trochim, 1987). The author examined maps with different numbers
of concepts before arriving at a decision in favor of the seven-cluster
solution. By reducing the number of clusters by two, additional solutions
were examined. Insignificant changes were introduced from reducing the
number from 13 to 11, and 11 to 9. However, reducing the nine-cluster
solution to eight represented a substantial improvement. Both the six
and five concept solutions appeared to be over-generalized and less useful.
The seven-concept solution appeared to provide the best interpretability
(see Figure 1).
Table 1 continued.
DISCUSSION
The results of the study are compared to the available literature on reintegration
needs of offenders. Similarities and differences are noted.
Cluster One: Basic Supplies
Although basic needs of food and clothing for offenders released from
prison are reported in the literature (Helfgott 1997), the more specific
health needs mentioned by study participants, such as health care coverage
for dental, eye, and medication were not. These basic needs can be considered
important in order to meet other needs contained in this cluster. There
are several references in the literature on the housing needs of offenders
in the community (Austin 2001; Petersilia 2001), which were also identified
by the participants in the study.
Income needs were described by study participants, including a social
insurance number, necessary for employment in Canada, and a bank account.
These were not reported specifically in the literature, but the idea of
a release grant (Petersilia 2001) and knowledge of social services were
mentioned (Wormith and McKeague 1996). Work clothing was identified as
a basic need for employment by participants but not in the literature.
The issue of "decent wages" was also mentioned by parole officers
and may be related to the need for "employers who hire Aboriginals".
Prejudice and discrimination are barriers to getting income and employment
needs met (Helfgott 1997).
Childcare is a need, more often for female offenders than male (Harm and
Phillips 2001). There is considerable attention paid to this issue in
the literature in relation to day care (Flanagan 1995), care during community
treatment (Hall, Baldwin, Prendegrast 2001), and parenting education (Castellano
1995).
Figure 1. Concept Map
Cluster Two: Life Skills
Several references are made in the literature to the need for life skill
training for offenders including concepts of problem solving, negotiation,
critical reasoning, money management, and independent living skills (McGuire
and Hatcher 2001; Raynor and Vandstone 1996; Roberts and Harper 1997).
Mental health and substance abuse needs have also been identified in the
literature (Helfgott 1997; Read 1995), as have family violence interventions
(Castellano 1995). While there are several references to shelter issues
(Helfgott 1997) and halfway housing needs (Austin, 2001), there are none
described as culturally sensitive in the literature. Lipsey (1992) found
a general reduction in offender recidivism in a meta analysis of a variety
of young offender life skills programs, indicating that these interventions
do have a positive impact on offender reintegration.
Cluster Three: Education and Employment
There are references in the literature to the needs of offenders being
released into the community for educational upgrading and job placement
as well as vocational counseling services (McMurray 1993), with a distinct
cultural perspective and different languages of instruction (Roberts and
Harper 1997). The funding and income needed to support these activities
have not been described in the literature, however. Funding issues may
be addressed through corrections programs' connections with other community
resources such as schools, employers, social service agencies, and neighborhood
organizations (Currie 1985, in Bloom 1991). Income from attending upgrading
and work-experience programs has not received much attention in the literature
(Petersilia 2001), but may be an important element in making these opportunities
attractive and useful short-term solutions to offenders with no savings
who are released to the community.
In a review of effective rehabilitation interventions for juveniles, Lipsey
(1999) reported the benefits of community-based school-sponsored and academic
skill-oriented programs. In their meta-analysis of education, vocation
and work programs for adult offenders, Wilson, Gallagher and MacKenzie
(2000) found that participants recidivated at a lower rate than non-participants.
Cluster Four: Corrections Programs
Different authors (Palmer 1996) describe a number of correctional programs
that focus on problem-solving, social skills, emotional management, negotiation
skills, critical reasoning, and pro social thinking (Raynor and Vanstone
1996). Offender variables have also been studied. The type and duration
of these programs vary according to the protocol used, the offender populations
designed for (e.g. those who have versus have not completed prior treatment),
and the delivery method (e.g. program staff, psychology, case managers).
Success has been reported in delivering programs specific to particular
offender groups (Flanagan 1995).
Meta analytic techniques have been used to demonstrate the positive impact
of correctional programs on offender rehabilitation. There is support
in the literature for the effectiveness of programs that match intensity
with risk, target criminogenic needs, match teaching style to offender
learning style, are delivered in the community, have an emphasis on skill-building,
and have consistency between goals and methods (Andrews, Zinger, Hoge,
Bonta, Gendreau, and Cullen 1990; Losel 1995; McGuire 1995; 2001).
Cluster Five: Insight Into Problems
There are references in the literature to the importance of a crime cycle,
which involves identification of the risk areas and typical cognitive
and behavioral pathways toward relapse for offenders on release (Castellano
1995). Psychotherapy evaluation research with even the most challenging
cases under the most challenging circumstances, those with antisocial
personalities under prison conditions, has shown positive effects on re-offense
after release (Losel and Koferl 1989). In community settings the impact
of interventions to increase insight into problem areas of offenders does
vary according to their offense history and qualifications of program
delivery staff (Lipsey and Wilson 1998). Its identification as a need
for newly released offenders suggests that it should be developed and
drafted during incarceration, reviewed and revised as soon as possible
after release, as well as on an ongoing basis.
Cluster Six: Preparation for Community Supervision
While there are several references in the literature to facilitating reentry
into the community for offenders who have recently been released from
incarceration, there is little attention paid to coordinating the case
planning and management with the community officer's input before the
offender is released. Bloom (1991) reports on the development of solid
ties between the offender and the community as a goal of community supervision,
and Currie (1985) describes connecting corrections programs with other
community resources such as schools, employers, social service agencies,
and neighborhood organizations. While it is seen as important to have
a close working relationship between the community clinical team and community
parole officer (Roskes and Feldman 1999), only for mentally ill offenders
is it identified that a liaison between treatment, case management, and
rehabilitation services between the institution and community is important
(Roskes and Feldman 1999).
There are several references to the characteristics of effective community
supervision and the relationship between the parole officer and the offender
(Ford, Pritchard, and Cox 1997). It is suggested that the relationship
does have potential for beneficial outcomes for supervision, if offender
was willing and had needs that matched with officer time, helper orientation
to case management, and skills (Leibrich 1994).
Cluster Seven: Structure
In the literature there is a focus on supervision strategies by frequency
and invasiveness according to their differing outcomes for various groups
of parolees (Gendreau and Cullen 1994; Palmer 1996). While it is obvious
that instability is not necessarily the cause of all problems on parole,
there is merit to considering factors that indicate stability through
structured interventions for newly released offenders. The literature
quite clearly supports the use of structured cognitive-behavioral interventions
(Redondo, Sanchez-Meca and Garrido 1999), as well as ongoing monitoring
and evaluation of progress after release into the community (Losel 2001).
A return to old patterns of behavior can result for some offenders who
have flexibility, opportunity, and perceive a lack of other options in
response to unmet needs. In some cases increased structure, like intensive
supervision, may be useful (Ford, Prithcard and Cox 1997).
CONCLUSION
Understanding the needs of newly released offenders is crucial at a time
when more Canadian offenders are in custody than in the community. The
approximate 60/40 split between institution and community residency among
Federal offenders in Canada has remained relatively consistent (Motiuk,
Boe, and Nafekh 2003). The topic is also timely given the new provisions
of the Canadian Youth Criminal Justice Act, which encourages community-based
sentences and periods of community supervision following incarceration.
Because about 90% of federal offenders have a previous youth or adult
conviction (Motiuk, Boe and Nafkeh 2003), successful interventions at
both juvenile and adult levels have the potential to decrease future admissions.
The literature on community corrections suggests that offenders do respond
acceptably to intervention in general, and that focused, cognitive-behavioral
interventions appear to be most effective. However, there has been only
modest attention paid to meeting basic needs and understanding the role
of contextual factors in recidivism. Both make a significant contribution
to the life pathways of many who come into contact with the justice system.
Participants in this study described the needs that offenders have in
order to meet the demands of their context upon release. The accurate
appraisal of offenders' own abilities and risk is important, but not sufficient.
Basic training in money management, and life skills do not meet the basic
practical needs like health care, medications, eyeglasses, and a social
insurance card, which are necessary in order to find employment. A stable
and pro-social living environment also plays a role in the success of
newly released offenders. Transitional housing is crucial for offenders
to get settled and independent. The type of housing and quality of support
provided plays a role in parole success. It is possible that if the conditions
they find themselves in after release are no different than those they
were in at the time of offense, immersion in the context which played
a role in their index offence will encourage a return to previous behavior.
In general, the factors affecting success on parole identified by parole
officers are the same as those reported in the literature. Basic needs
for income, education, employment, community support, as well as realistic
expectations of community release and internalized relapse-prevention
strategies are fundamental to success for newly released offenders. However,
limited opportunities to use their new insights and practice newly learned
skills pose a substantial challenge for many upon release. Concrete assistance
(e.g. bus tickets - where available, and child care) may be barriers to
meeting expectations others have of them. The complexity of managing new
and multiple responsibilities (self, family, friends, employer, parole
officer) should not be overlooked.
Offenders benefit from having something productive to do with enough financial
and interpersonal support to do it. That is not to say that meeting basic
needs is sufficient for successful reintegration. However, when combined
with realistic pro-social expectations and a solid plan for handling difficult
situations, it appears that early success on community supervision is
more likely. This finding is consistent with the results of a study of
Canadian recidivists (Zamble and Quinsey 1997), examining the impact of
environment and coping as factors leading to re-offense in the first year
after release.
The literature describes promising initiatives for mentally ill offenders
where relationships between service providers, family members, community
associations, and the case management teams in the institution and community
are developed. Short-term outcomes for these offenders appear to be better
when they have their basic needs met and parole expectations clarified
at the time of release. It appears that the parole officers who participated
in the present study also see the benefits of recognizing multiple areas
of need for newly released offenders. Perhaps new reintegration initiatives
for parolees early in their community release can be developed and evaluated
to address this apparent gap in the literature.
While there is agreement between the needs identified by the parole officers
and those reported in the literature, the reason for this is not known.
Do parole officers make assessments of offender needs based on their own
professional experience or formal training? Because training in risk assessment
is mandatory for parole officers, it is likely that they have been influenced
by the literature that is included in staff training. However, years of
work experience among some (up to 25 years of service as a community parole
officer) may also account for knowledge about offender needs.
There are other limitations. No frequency data were collected, so there
is no evidence as to whether parole officers agreed with one another on
the needs, or whether some needs were more important than others. Future
research may explore the agreement and importance pieces to determine
the extent to which they align with the available literature.
Additionally, this study only presents the perspective of community parole
officers. While they are major players in community corrections, they
are not the only ones who have a perspective on this issue. The perspectives
of offenders, program staff, and medical staff should be obtained. On
the issue of liaison between institution and community treatment and supervision,
it would be helpful to know what institutional parole officers see as
important issues for those offenders they are preparing for community
release in order to start a dialogue about how to address these issues.
A final limitation concerns the generalizability of findings. Because
the perceptions of parole officers are not based on interactions with
offenders of a similar profile, the needs as identified are not sensitive
to differences among offenders with different circumstances upon entry
into prison, nor the prison environment from which they emerged. Therefore,
the results speak to general needs, which should be considered for offenders
released into the community, and not specific risk factors for all offenders.
In conclusion, it appears that many issues can affect the success of newly
released offenders under community supervision, and parole officers collectively
recognize the same factors as those described in the literature. It is
possible to consider the preventive effects of each by isolating and combining
predictors from this list that may prove to have a more indirect effect
to recidivism, adding more complexity to the study of why offenders return
to jail, but a more complete picture of the causes and their relationship
to one another.
The results indicate that parole officers, in general, report the same
needs for offenders on community release as are found in the literature.
While the source of their information - experience or training - cannot
be ascertained from these data, it seems that they have, as a group, a
solid knowledge about the issues which have an empirical basis in the
literature. As a group, they are knowledgeable. Team efforts may serve
to strengthen the decision-making accuracy of parole officers. Opportunities
to interact and review cases with colleagues may provide the opportunity
to learn from one another's experience or education, and should be examined
for their impact value on knowledge and accuracy.
NOTES
1 Only unique responses to the question were collected. Redundant responses
were not recorded by the interviewer at the time of interview, and were
therefore available to be incorporated into the analysis.back
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